Historical overviews show that using grade retention in response to lack of achievement ignores its negative effects on students. Retention rates at the end of the 1990s were high, matching that of the early 1900s. Data shows that retained students are more likely to drop out, have underprivileged backgrounds, be male and students of color, and have less educated parents. Further, grade retention ignores the question of instructional effectiveness, places the onus of failure on the student, and absolves the school of responsibility. Frymier & Gansneder (1989), Owings & Magliaro (1998), Johnson (1984)

The more one advances in school, the less of a role retention plays. We are strictest with the youngest, who need most flexibility. In graduate school there is no pressure to graduate "with your class" and a large percentage of undergraduates don't finish in four years, with no disgrace. Krashen (2003)